[Time has proved many of Vincent's colourful fears unfounded. More than a century of subsequent experience of hypnosis has proved it to be an exceptionally safe form of therapy, as evidenced by the happily low professional insurance premiums which hypnotherapists pay.
Some of Vincent's anecdotes of people doing things against their best interests can only be Victorian urban myths. In the 1930's the famous American psychiatrist Milton Erickson did conclusive experiments in which he asked subjects in the deepest levels of trance to give him five dollars. Not one person did so. Many instantly snapped out of trance, and some never trusted him ever again. Rest assured that hypnosis is entirely safe.]
In considering the dangers to which the public are liable from an improper use of hypnosis, we must dismiss from our minds, as far as possible, the popular ideas with regard to the subject. The playwright and the novelist have both apparently been at pains to write the greatest amount of nonsense in the shortest possible space, and they have been at liberty to write with no knowledge and little understanding, since the public who listen to and read their productions care little, and know less. It would be a waste of time to discuss the various fallacies which underlie this class of writing; suffice it to say that no work of this character, with which the writer is acquainted, gives any true idea of the hypnotic state or the dangers which may attend its use. The members of the medical profession who have attacked the use of hypnotism have shown very little acquaintance with the subject; their views appear to be religious rather than scientific, and it is unnecessary to discuss opinions which are not based on scientific observation. In consequence, however, of the unwise methods of criticism adopted, some of the real dangers attending the illicit use of hypnotism have been overlooked.
These dangers we proceed to discuss. And the relation of hypnotism to crime has to be considered, because, as we have seen in the earlier portion of this book, some persons are so deeply influenced that they become entirely obedient to the hypnotist. They are absolutely insensible to pain, and on waking cannot remember anything that may have happened in hypnosis. It is clear that such a state presents possibilities of crime, but it is to be remembered that according to all the observations of Liébeault, Bernheim, and others, only about fifteen per cent, of subjects are influenced to this deep degree. Nevertheless, however small the number, the fact that it is possible for a criminal action to be proposed or a criminal suggestion made with success, justifies a consideration of the matter:
This question of the criminal use of hypnotism recently came before the public in the “Gouffé murder trial.” Gabrielle Bompard, as is well known, set up the defence that her part in the tragedy was due to post-hypnotic suggestions given to her by her paramour, Michel Eyraud. A large amount of evidence was called on both sides, but the jury refused to accept the defence put forward, and returned a verdict of guilty.
Then there is the liability to assault, a possibility which, in the case of female subjects, is obviously of the greatest possible importance. Several cases, where a criminal assault has been committed, have been reported in various countries. The patient being in a deep stage and, on waking, having no memory of what has occurred, the opportunity for assault is unquestionable; moreover, as further suggestions may be made to the woman by the hypnotist with the object of preventing his detection, the woman herself may have no knowledge of her condition and may be quite unable to account for the pregnancy that may ensue; or, when pregnant, she may carry out a post-hypnotic suggestion and attribute the paternity to an innocent person. Leaving out of consideration the deeper stages in which an assault is primarily to be dealt with, many of the lighter stages give the hypnotist the opportunity of making suggestions which, if skilfully given, might easily diminish the resistance of the subject to vanishing point, especially if the subject be a woman not requiring too much persuasion. By these means, also, the consent of the subject might be gained after hypnosis, as a result of the suggestions given in hypnosis. It is to this class that most of the cases in the future will probably belong; for, in the deeper stages, the man runs some risk the patient may wake up in the same way as some subjects do when a suggestion is made which violently offends some strong innate feeling (e.g., a suggestion to a Catholic that he should be a Protestant); and for various reasons, the condition of the woman, etc., he would not be likely to choose the actual deep hypnosis as the moment for assault On the other hand, where, by suggestion, he has obtained consent, he runs no apparent risk and more effectually gains his purpose. Further, it is relation with this class that false accusations may be made; the seduction being admitted, it may be said by the woman that she was induced to consent after she had first been hypnotised by the man. Such a statement may be quite false, but it may be quite true, and no ordinary tribunal could come to any scientific conclusion on such a matter as this by the ordinary methods of examination; hut by carefully examining the statements of the woman, by possibly hypnotising the woman to see how far hypnosis is inducible and to what extent suggestion is effectual, and by considering all the circumstances we may in many cases arrive at a definite and certain opinion. Not, indeed, that the subject may not lie in hypnosis; such an idea has no foundation in fact, and falsehood may be more elaborate and detailed than, in the normal state. Moreover, though the hypnosis may be genuine, there may be simulation in the hypnosis, if suggestions have been given to that effect; but all these questions and many others could easily be settled by one well acquainted with the possibilities of simulation and the phenomena of hypnosis. With regard to the precautions to be adopted the remedy is easy, and should be put in force by the operator for the sake of his own responsibility, and by the subject for her safety and confidence. Dr Kingsbury sums this up well by saying, “No person should permit himself or herself to be hypnotised save by a medical man (or properly authorised scientist) who has a character to maintain, and in whose integrity and ability confidence can be reposed. And further, no woman should allow herself to be hypnotised except in the presence of one or more witnesses of whom she approves.”’
Other crimes may be committed against the hypnotised individual; it would be comparatively easy for the hypnotist to kill his subject, with no lesion to be found post-mortem. In good subjects, the heart-beat can be modified to a remarkable degree by suggestion, and a continuation of skilful suggestion might produce a fatal syncope. Again, suggestions may be made by the hypnotist in his own interest against that of the subject. The subject may be induced to make a will, draw cheques, and perform other actions to the advantage of the hypnotist. Moll performed an experiment which seems to show the probability of success in some cases. He hypnotised a man and suggested to him that he should afterwards write and promise a donation to the Society of Prussian Medical Officers, and at the same time explain (according to the suggestion) that this offer was made quite of his own accord. This suggestion was carried out.
The possibilities of criminal suggestion have been elaborately discussed by many writers, prominent amongst whom are Liegeois, Gilles de la Tourette, and Forel. It is admitted by all that even amongst deep subjects, the proportion who would commit a crime in response to suggestion is very small. For not only will the subject refuse to commit a crime, but it has been often noticed that any suggestion, which is repulsive to the feelings of the patient, will, in all probability, be disobeyed.
Liegeois narrates amongst many others the following case
“I dissolved a white powder in water, and solemnly declared to Madame C-- (a patient aged thirty-five) that it was arsenic. I then said to her: Here is Monsieur D--, be is thirsty, he will ask you in a moment for something to drink; you. will offer him this glass of water.” “Yes, sir.” Monsieur D--, however, asked a question I had not foreseen, he asked what was in the glass And with a candour that banished all idea of simulation, Madame C-- replied: “It is arsenic !” I was therefore obliged to correct my suggestion, and I said
‘If you are asked what the glass contains, you will say sugar and water.’
“Cross-questioned by the commissary of police, Madame C-- remembers absolutely nothing. She asserts that she has seen nothing, done nothing, and has not given anything to drink to anyone; she does not know what they mean.”
Gilles de la Tourette records another experiment of criminal suggestion:-
“We first put H. E--, who has had some words with our friend B--, a medical student in the hospital, into a state of somnambulism, we then say to him: You know Monsieur B--?” “Yes, sir.” “He is a very nice man.” “Oh no, sir, he does not attend to me properly!” “Really! Well then we must put him out of the way, and then we shall certainly have another student who will take better care of you.” “I ask for nothing better.” “You must do what is hecessary; here is a pistol (and we place a ruler in his hand); when you awake, you will fire at him, he will be coming here, wait for him !”
“We blow on H. E-‘s eyes, who, after awaking, continues conversing with us, all the while playing with the revolver (or rather the ruler that represents a revolver in his eyes), which he absolutely refuses to part with. The suggestion not yet having been fulfilled, the subject would sooner kill anyone who tried to dispossess him of his weapon, rather than give it up.
“At a certain moment our friend B--, who has been warned of the way he will be greeted, enters the ward. H. E-- allows him to approach, and then coolly discharges his pistol point blank at him. B-- falls down, exclaiming: “I am killed I” “What,” we say to H. E--, “you have killed Monsieur B! but what can have induced you to commit such a crime?” “Monsieur B-- did not properly attend to me; I have revenged myself!” “That is not a sufficient reason.” “You may think so, but I had also many others; besides, he was doomed to die by my hand !”
The experimental nature of these suggestions would probably act as a suggestion in itself in these cases, and it is difficult to decide how far these interesting experiments represent what would occur in actual life. At any rate the following description by Luys in one of his clinical lectures is much exaggerated: -“You can not only oblige this defenceless being, who is incapable of opposing the slightest resistance, to give from hand to hand anything you may choose, but you can also make him sign a promise, draw up a bill of exchange, or any other kind of agreement. You may make him write an holographic will (which according to French law would be valid), which he will hand over to you, and of which he will never know the existence. He is ready to fulfil the minutest legal formalities, and will do so with a calm, serene, and natural manner calculated to deceive the most expert law officers. The somnambulists will not hesitate either, you may be sure, to make a denunciation, or to bear false witness; they are, I repeat, the passive instruments of your will. For instance, take E: she will at my bidding write out and sign a donation of forty pounds in my favour. In a criminal point of view, the subject under certain suggestions will make false denunciations, accuse this or that person, and maintain with the greatest assurance that he has assisted at an imaginary crime. I will recall to your mind those scenes of fictitious assassination which I have exhibited before you.
“I was careful to place in the subject’s hand a piece of paper instead of a dagger or a revolver; but it is evident, that if they had held veritable murderous instruments, the scene might have had a tragic ending.”
Without denying the possibilities of successful criminal suggestion, we must admit that there are a great many hindrances to its successful execution, for many generally incalculable circumstances will have to be taken into consideration by the hypnotist. If the subject execute the suggestion as a result a suggested revenge or other passion, he will know that it is wrong and against the law, so that to the execution of the crime there will be opposed his moral consciousness; the result of this conflict manifests itself in many ways in experiments of much less serious moment; thus, if the subject is told that he will strike some one on waking, he will do what has been suggested, but he will not hurt the individual struck; not because he is in any way “acting” but because he is the subject of two conflicting emotions, each of which is acting on him with a definite force. Then if these difficulties be provided for, the hypnotist will probably involve himself; suggestions being made to counteract strong feelings naturally existent in the man, they will fail to effect their purpose, since the inhibition of these centres will be disturbed, causing the suggestion to be partly dissipated in consciousness, and this, despite the attempts of the hypnotist, Will bring consideration and resistance into play. Finally, if all the suggestion be effective, the subject will probably perform the act in a condition of post-hypnosis, resembling the second or fourth posthypnotic condition. The actions of the subject immediately after the act would be of a character to indicate the solution of the question, and would probably result in an immediate search for the hypnotist. So that on the whole we are inclined to think a criminal act against the subject is more easy than to obtain the proper execution of a criminal suggestion against another.
Still, in the hands of a skilful hypnotist, it would be difficult to place any definite limitations on the reaction of the subject to suggestion. He might be induced to commit suicide, to desert his wife, and to do many other things where, by the effect of the suggestion on the man’s mind, these results might naturally, and more or less indirectly, be produced. It is important that everyone should recognise that the dangers of hypnotism hi the hands of the ignorant, the unscrupulous, or the malicious, are real; and though it would be idle to attack hypnotism itself, because like everything else it is open to abuse, yet the public have a right to demand that they should have some guarantee that the qualifications of the hypnotist and his good faith are unquestionable.
Bernheimn, writing as a physician on the therapeutic side of hypnotism, lays down the following rules 1:-
1. “Never hypnotise any subject without his formal consent, or the consent of those in authority over him
2. Never induce sleep except in the presence of a third person in authority, who can guarantee the good faith of the hypnotist and the subject. Thus any trouble may be avoided in the event of an accusation, or any suspicion of an attempt which is not for the relief of the subject.
3. Never give to the hypnotised subject, without his consent, any other suggestions than those necessary for his case. The physician has no rights but those conferred upon him by the patient. He should limit himself to the therapeutic suggestion any other experiment is forbidden him, without the formal consent of the patient, even if it be in the interest of science. The physician should not profit by his authority over the patient in order to provoke this consent, if he think that the experiment which he wishes to perform may have the slightest harmful effect.”
Both for the sake of science and for the sake of the public good, it is imperative that proper restrictions should be placed on the use of hypnotism: Great Britain is one of the few countries permitting the public exhibition of hypnotised subjects for the purposes of entertainment; for these vulgar shows and degrading exhibitions there can be no excuse, and it is inexcusable that they have been so long tolerated.
It would be surprising if a state in which such modifications of the organism can be induced, could not be of service from a therapeutic point of view, and many members of the medicalprofession in this and other countries have sought its aid in the treatment of disease. For many years Liebeault had used hypnotism in his practice at Nancy, but it did not become widely known until Bernheim, Professor of Clinical Medicine at the College of Medicine, Nancy, was induced to investigate the subject. From this time Bernheim became the most prominent advocate of its use in medicine, and his work, “Suggestive Therapeutics,” is the most important contribution made to the study of this branch of the subject. The application of hypnosis in medicine has gradually extended, and many are using it in the various countries. In England, Lloyd Tuckey was the first, in recent years, to advocate the use of hypnotism in the treatment of disease, and his work on “PsychoTherapeutics” may be consulted by those desirous of knowing more in this connection. Milne Bramwell and Kingsbury have also done much valuable work.. Felkin published in 1890 a table, an adaptation of
which follows; without committing ourselves to the details, it is interesting as showing that the subject has been much studied, and that a large number of cases have been recorded from which to draw conclusions:-
[Table is here omitted. In summary it states that Bernheim, Van Renterghem and Van Eden, Tuckey, Wagner, and other authors reported a total of 496 cases in which hypnosis was used as treatment, variously classified as: organic diseases of the nervous system, hysterical diseases, neuropathic affections, various neuroses, dynamic pareses and paralyses, gastro-intestinal affections, various painful affections, rheumatic affections, neuralgias, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, mehorrhagia and mental diseases. OF these 224 were reported cured, 200 improved, and 72 failed.]
The therapeutic applications of hypnotism have an important bearing on physiological psychology; and the effects obtained by its use go far to prove the absolute manner in which the course of a suggestion is altered as a consequence of hypnosis. As an instance of stimuli essentially psychical in their character becoming, as a ,result of hypnosis, physical in terminal dissipation, we may quote a case of Tuckey’s, which is as interesting from this as from the medical point of view.
A. N., clerk, aged 25, came under treatment in March, 1889. She had had much writing to do, and since three years had felt symptoms of loss of power in the right hand and control over the pen. She had been treated at a general hospital by galvanism for three months without benefit, and had become so much worse that she had been obliged to leave the desk and engage in other occupations. She was also unable to use the needle for any length of time on account of cramp supervening. After writing two or three lines, she experienced crampy pains in the thumb and forefinger and in the flexor muscles of the forearm. After a few lines, spasmodic jerking of the thumb was observed, and. this increased-together with the pains-to such an extent, that in less than a minute the patient declared her inability to hold the pen any longer. There was marked tenderness and soreness on pressure over the median and musculo-spiral nerves. She was hypnotised, and fell into the third stage. In that condition the muscles were rubbed, the joints exercised, and suggestions of improvement made.
After a few minutes rest the patient was directed to again write, and she found the fatigue and cramp had disappeared and did not return until she had written half a page. She came regularly for treatment three times a week for two months, and at the end of that time was cured.
The cases where the fault lies in the higher neuronic groups show the course of a stimulus, which, though not provoking consciousness, is yet directed to the more psychical elements of the neuronic groups, in accordance with the principles laid down in our discussion of the physiology of hypnosis. The following case quoted from Tuckey is of interest in this respect
Dr X is a university professor of, eminence, and he came to me in June 1890, to try what hypnotic suggestion would do to cure him of smoking. He had been. an inveterate smoker for twenty years, and had never succeeded in breaking himself of the habit, though he had made frequent attempts. He was highly nervous, and complained of sleeplessness, palpitation, mental irritability, and dyspepsia all probably due to the very large quantity of tobacco he was consuming in the form of cigarettes. He was easily hypnotised, and fell into the second stage. I suggested that he would cease to care for tobacco, and that he would find himself able to break off the habit without difficulty. The operation was repeated daily for three days, and the patient then discontinued treatment. On making inquiries I have received a letter from him from which the following is an extract:
“The suggestion was immediate in its effect, so that I felt no craving for the weed, although I had been a habitual smoker for nearly twenty years. Of course I felt very uncomfortable, and my life was very much upset at first by my sudden change in habit; nor did I experience at once all the benefits that I expected from abstinence; so that had I not been under influence I should certainly have relapsed (to my everlasting regret), as I had done whenever I relinquished the habit before being hypnotised. I begin to think that I must now be tobacco-proof, and have not smoked once since I saw you, and am in very much better health.”
It is not the object of this work to specifically deal with the medical aspects of the question, and those who wish to obtain further information are referred to the works on this branch. But we may express the opinion that whilst hypnotism will probably continue to be of great value in the hands of medical men who understand the subject, it is not likely to be of much service if made use of by members of the medical profession who have only a slight acquaintance with its practical side; many failures have occurred through the incompetence of the operator. Moreover, it is hardly likely to be of great service in general hospital practice. Those who are acquainted with the general conditions existent in hospital wards, with the constant ingoing and outgoing of persons in the service of the hospital, and with the constant signs of the work of the ward in progress, will realise how difficult it would be to obtain the conditions laid down as generally necessary for the induction of a first hypnosis; nevertheless, given the proper conditions and a skilful operator, the application of hypnotism as an auxiliary treatment would probably be beneficial. The uses of hypnosis in the study of physiological psychology are sufficiently evident in the previous chapters.
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