It is clear that the doctrines signified by the terms “mesmerism,” “animal magnetism,” “electrobiology,” and the like, were incapable of any serious scientific study, since they concerned a state which, on these theories, was altogether incomprehensible if not supernatural; whether true or untrue, they may be said to stand much in the same position towards the scientific world as Spiritualism and Theosophy. By hypnotists it is claimed that this state, whether it be called mesmeric, magnetic, or what not, is one purely physiological and subjective, and this theory has been adhered to by almost all scientific men who have studied the question, since Braid first propounded it.
There are many interesting questions, such as Telepathy, Thought-reading, Clairvoyance, etc., upon which it would be perhaps rash to give any decided opinion; but it must be said that the hypnotic state per se has nothing to do with any of these phenomena. If telepathy be possible between two persons, it is by no means unlikely that the power would still exist, or even be increased, under hypnosis, but the writer is not acquainted with any conclusive or satisfactory experiments in this direction.
All these strange psychical conditions present problems of great interest; and if we do not attempt to deal with them here, it is because they have not a sufficient bearing on the normal states of hypnosis to justify a discussion of them.
Several terms which will be frequently used in the course of this book may here be defined.
HYPNOTISM. The science which treats of the condition which is called “hypnosis.” The word is a colourless term, which we ‘may use without committing ourselves to any theory as to the etiology of hypnosis, and especially without giving any assent, direct or indirect, to the various superstitions known under the name of “animal magnetism,” “mesmerism,” etc.
HYPNOSIS (Greek “hupnos”, sleep). The state produced by means of hypnotism, and which was formerly called the “magnetic” or “mesmeric” sleep. It is admitted that the term hypnosis, meaning, as it does, “sleep,” does not adequately represent by its derivation the state produced, since many who are undoubtedly hypnotised are not in a condition of sleep. Yet it is difficult, if not impossible, to find any word which would adequately represent condition induced; and so long as we clearly understand what is meant by the term “hypnosis,” we can afford to leave on one side the question of its derivative meaning. The essential characteristic of the hypnosis is not sleep, nor a heightened and increased receptivity of suggestion (as the writer, with most others, formerly described it), but the presence of a condition in which the course followed by suggestive stimuli is altered so as to cause a definite reaction, consonant with the stimulus. The term Psychypnosis, sometimes used by the writer, would more accurately distinguish the state and would avoid confusion, but “hypnosis” is now commonly employed and we will not complicate the subject by needless terminology.
HYPNOTISER. The one who scientifically induces hypnosis.
HYPNOTEE, HYPNOTIC, SUBJECT, are words used to signify the person hypnotised. “Subject” is the one most frequently used.
HYPNOTIC SUGGESTION. Any suggestion or impression given to the patient by the hypnotist either in words, writing, or in any manner which the subject can appreciate.
Many methods have been used for the induction of hypnosis; we shall see later that the detail of the method matters little so long as certain conditions are adhered to; the success of ‘many of the mystical methods depended not on, the alleged cause but on conditions which, though always necessarily present, were not regarded by the operators as having anything essential to do with the process of magnetising. Before describing our own methods of inducing hypnosis, it will be well to give a summary of the various methods which have been employed.
THE MESMERIC METHODS. Mesmer did not rely on any one method, but made use of numerous contrivances, by means of which he sought to influence his patients. The essential point was that the patient should be in contact with the magnetiser or the magnetised baguet: in order that the “fluid” might pass into the patient’s body.
BRAID’S METHOD. Braid placed some object before and slightly above the eyes of his patient. He then commanded him to gaze fixedly at this object, and to concentrate his attention on it. Ernst Jendrásik of Buda-Pesth has expressed the opinion that fixed attention is only effective because it causes fatigue of the nerves of sight, and consequently produces insensibility to external sense stimulation. It is known that for the induction of ordinary sleep it is not necessary that all the functions of the brain should be tired, and that if any one be sufficiently wearied sleep will ensue. The strained position of the eyes, and their convergence, under Braid’s method, would, undoubtedly, soon fatigue the optic nerve, and thus sleep would be induced. Braid used solely this method, and he was remarkably successful.
PASSES.- On these great importance was placed by the early magnetisers, and we find the most minute directions given for their correct application and use. The “pass” proper, however, was never used by Mesmer, to whom it was unknown. Generally, the operator gazed fixedly into the eyes of the subject as long as he continued to make the passes. The will was held to be an essential element, and ie was necessary for the cure that the operator should strongly exercise his will that the nerve-force might the more easily pass into the body of the patient.
These passes were divided into two kinds, “positive” and “negative.” If they were used for the purpose of enveloping the patient in a healthy magnetism, they were “positive”; if they were intended to withdraw the unhealthy magnetism from the patient’s body, they were then termed “negative.” The mesmeric quacks of to-day profess great belief in the efficacy of these various passes, and, in one book there are described and illustrated: “The Reverse or Upward Pass for demesmerising,” “The Curative Magnetic Pass for Toothache, Neuralgia, Rheumatism,” etc., “The Curative Magnetic Pass for Spinal Complaints,” etc. This is, of course, pure nonsense, but several hypnotists claim that the method of simple passes is often very valuable. Ch. Richet, Professor of Physiology at the University of Paris, uses this method in preference to any other. The writer has found it very effective in many cases. The precise nature of the action of these passes is difficult to determine. Unquestionably, the element of suggestion enters in, but it is doubted by some whether this can account for all the results. It has been suggested that the difference of temperature between the hands of the operator and the face of the patient may cause a strange sensation, and thus induce an inhibitory action in the delicate nerves of the eye and of the mouth.
BERGER’S METHOD. Berger of Breslau has stated that in some cases he found that warmth alone was sufficient to induce hypnosis, and that in a few instances it was only necessary to warm his hands and hold them near the head of the subject.
This theory rather supports the explanation of the passes which has been suggested above. Another hypothesis is that electrical action is caused. De Tarchanoff has shown that systematic gentle stimulations of the skin produce slight currents of electricity in it, and also that these currents can be I produced by a strong concentration of the will, in consequence of which concentration, muscular contraction always ensues. The mesmerists held, as the result of their observations, that a strong volitional effort was necessary, and the experiments of de Tarchanoff may serve to explain the value of this exertion of the will.
Pitres of Bordeaux states that certain portions of the body are more particularly sensitive to stimulation of the skin. These parts he terms “zones hypnogenes,” and a continuous stimulus applied to any one of these parts is said to produce hypnosis in some persons.
Weinhold of Chemnitz has made use of the electric battery, and claims the same results from it as from mesmeric passes; though he does not consider that suggestion is excluded.
Eulenburg, by galvanising the head, succeeded in obtaining a lethargic condition; this experiment, was not very convincing, as the patient had already suffered from attacks of lethargy. The mental element is certainly not excluded in these cases of electrisation; and Hirt of Breslau, whilst he constantly uses electricity in this way, is quite positive that it is not the galvanic current but the indirect suggestion which causes the hypnosis.
FASCINATION. This method, introducing as it does a large amount of the personal element, is a favourite one of the mesmeric “professors!The subject is told to gaze steadily into the operator’s eyes. It frequently happens that in a short space of time the subject will imitate every movement of the operator, all the while keeping his eyes firmly fixed on those of the operator. This method is somewhat risky, since, if the subject be refractory, the operator himself may involuntarily become hypnotised. Lloyd Tuckey records an instance where, in using this method on one occasion, he found himself developing the first symptoms of hypnosis.
LASEGUE’S METHOIL Lasegue, a physician of Paris, found that closing the eyes and then making a moderate pressure on the eyeballs for some minutes often induced the state.
FARIA’S METHOD. The Abbe Faria used to concentrate the attention of his subject as much as possible, and after some minutes of perfect silence, would suddenly shout in a loud and commanding voice the word “sleep.” In many cases this was sufficient to obtain the desired result.
MAGNETS. Several authorities claim that the magnet has in some cases the power of hypnotising.
Ballet, Binet et Féré, Landowzy, and Proust, all of Paris, and Benedikt of Vienna hold this view.. After many careful experiments the writer can confidently say that he has been unable to find any trace of such influence, and this result is confirmed by the almost universal testimony of hypnotists in all parts of the world. It may be that in a certain few abnormal cases the magnet has this virtue but it seems a more natural hypothesis to attribute these few hypnoses to suggestion, an element which enters into nearly every method, and which is so subtle in its action that it is almost impossible in these cases for an operator to state positively that it has been entirely avoided. Braid has left on record an experiment of his which bears on the supposed influence of the magnet. A lady told him that she could not endure a magnet being brought near her, and that it always had the most profound influence on her; and so it did when she knew of its proximity; but Braid, in order to test the nature of this influence, sat next to her on one occasion, for half an hour, with a powerful magnet concealed in his pocket, and, as he expected, found that no effect was produced.
DRUGS. Chambard places the anaesthetics chloroform, ether, and other similar drugs, amongst the agents for producing hypnosis. That, in some cases, a-receptivity to suggestion occurs in the state produced by the action of drugs is undeniable; but the same may be said of certain abnormal forms of ordinary sleep, and it seems an unnecessary confusion of the subject to regard these analogous states as hypnotic.
LUYS “MIROIR ROTATIF.”-This is an ingenious instrument, invented by Dr Luys of the Chariq Hospital, Paris. It consists of two mirrors, rapidly revolving in opposite directions, and by gazing at this for a short time the sight becomes tired and dazzled, and hypnosis is easily produced.
Many advantages are claimed for this method that it saves the operator time and trouble, and is impersonal; that a number of people can be hypnotised at the same time by its means; and that it never fails.
The saving of time is not really so great as might be imagined, for each subject must need the hypnotist’s personal attention, whilst there are many other methods equally impersonal. Only fairly susceptible persons, and those who had been previously hypnotised, would, generally speaking, be influenced en masse, and these could be hypnotised as quickly by a/most any other means. It is, however, of some service in certain cases.
THE NANCY METHOD. No scientific hypnotist adheres rigidly to any one method. He finds that, where it is the brain that is most intimately concerned, the idiosyncrasies and character of each subject must be studied, and a method chosen which seems m t likely to take effect. In all the differences of details, however, there is one main principle now recognised by the whole body of scientific hypnotists, and this is the theory of suggestion.
The Abbe Faria, in 1814, is apparently the first who can be said to have made any advance towards the elucidation of this principle. Braid, in 1850, we have seen, by his insistence on the necessity of concentration and fixed attention, made great advances; but to Liébeault of Nancy belongs the honour of giving to the world a scientific exposition of the rationale of hypnotism. We have it from Liebeault’s own lips that he was first attracted to the subject by reading Braid’s works, and he has constantly admitted that the Nancy system is indebted to Braid for its real genesis. In connection with Nancy must be mentioned Bernheim, who has greatly developed and systematised the study of hypnotism.
The method in common use at Nancy is as follows:
The patient is comfortably seated in an easy chair, with his back to the light, and the operator stands by his side, holding up two fingers of his own hand some few inches from the patient’s eyes. The patient is told to look intently at these two fingers, and, as far as possible, to keep his mind a blank. As soon as the eyes begin to show symptoms of weariness, the hypnotist begins in a somewhat muffled and monotonous tone of voice to suggest sleep.
Sometimes the operator, without waiting for the symptoms to appear, will start at once telling the patient, “You are beginning to feel drowsy,” “Your sight is getting dim,” etc., etc., whilst in other cases he will wait till the eyes begin to blink somewhat, and then seek to increase the sleepiness by suggestions, which are made as the symptoms begin to develop themselves.
It is not to be supposed that in all cases precisely the same formula or details of treatment are followed; but the principle is the same. Thus this method of Nancy takes Braid’s system of physically wearying the eyes, and combines with it a system of verbal suggestion, and this method is the one followed with variations in detail by the leading hypnotists.
As a matter of fact, there is no one plan which will succeed in all cases; some patients will be quite uninfluenced by one method of treatment, whilst they will be readily susceptible to another. Dr Moll says that he has succeeded in hypnotising by means of “passes” where fixed attention and simple suggestion both failed, and vice versa.
The method generally adopted by the writer does not differ materially from the Nancy method above described, but we shall here incorporate into our description details of practical importance. The first essential for the successful induction of hypnosis in a person who has not previously been hypnotised, is to ensure that the person is in a position which is quite comfortable, and which he will be able to maintain during the period of induction without discomfort; every little detail in this respect is an important feature in determining the degree of success or failure on the part of the hypnotist in a large number of cases; the kind of chair in which the patient sits, its relation to the lighting of the room; the position of his legs and feet, arms and hands; the head, whilst being supported, must not be allowed to fall backward, and the subject must sit as squarely as his comfort will allow. The surroundings must be free from any disturbing influences, and noises which we should not generally notice cause more difficulty than the larger volumes of sound; thus, the ticking of a dock, the quiet opening or shutting of a door, the whispering of persons inside the room-all these things serve to distract the attention of the subject at a critical time. The subject should be asked to keep his mind a blank as far as possible; he should, be told not to trouble himself about any methods used by the hypnotist; not to pay attention to what he may say, and especially not to try and help him by trying to “go off”; and every trouble should be taken to see that the patient is quite calm and free from undue nervousness. Having placed the subject comfortably in the chair, the next point is to fix his attention. For this purpose, it is not theoretically necessary that we should resort to any physical assistance, but the attention is fixed much more easily when some such assistance is employed. To gain attention the fixation of the sight is the best and readiest means, and we therefore tell the subject to look steadily and without blinking more than can be helped at some given object. The exact object matters little; it may be the operator’s finger, or a disc held in the patient’s hand, but it should not be more than about a foot from the eyes of the subject. It should be placed in such a position that when looking at it the eyes are fairly wide open; the light should fall on the object, and the subject should have his back towards the source of light. The hours after daylight are, on the whole, to be preferred, for in the morning the nervous irritability is generally greater than in the evening; the subject is consequently rendered passive with greater ease, and his general condition is more favourable. After an evening meal, most people are willing to remain quietly in a chair for a short period, whereas, earlier in the day, the enforced restraint might be more or less troublesome for the purposes of concentration of light on the object to be looked at, artificial light is better than daylight. It must not be assumed that these detailed observances are in all cases necessary, for it greatly depends on the susceptibility of the subject; but if one is to gain an average of anything over eighty per cent, it will only be by attention to these details. The first hypnosis is always the most difficult, and after the subject has been hypnotised a few times we can generally dispense with a great many of these precautions. Let us now watch the subject. Passive, and with his gaze fixed on the given object, he at first appears to be in the normal condition; after an interval of varying duration, a change comes over the subject. The writer confesses that to describe the change in so many words he finds impossible, but the experienced hypnotist easily recognises it; the pupils have somewhat dilated; the eyelids ‘May be quivering; the subject is more absorbed in the object than he was at first, the face has lost its usual expression, the respiratory rhythm is slightly altered. At this point the skill of the hypnotist has its greatest scope, for everything depends on the rapid and accurate perception of the changes which the subject is undergoing; hypnosis is beginning. The characteristic reaction of the subject to suggestion is also beginning, but it is far from complete, and we have to judge when the subject can take the first suggestion and how much be can take If we begin too early, we shall disturb him; ‘if we wait too long, he may, and often does, return, more or less, to the normal and we have missed our opportunity. This return is followed by a gradual resumption of the hypnosis, and before the final hypnosis is induced, this alternation may take place several times. The early suggestions must not be of a character repellent to the subject’s consciousness. Thus, fact and suggestion are mingled with suggestion and fact - “The eyelids are quivering; the eyes are tired; the sleep is coming” - until gradually the state diverges more and more from the normal; the final hypnosis generally comes suddenly. The eyes close, and one symptom is nearly always present-a peculiar, deep, catching inspiration - and others will be described in the chapter dealing with the phenomena of hypnosis. The inductive stages may therefore be classified as-
1. Passivity
2. Passivity with attention.
3. Acute passivity with acute attention.
4. Hypnosis.
The hypnosis thus obtained varies with each individual; but there are certain classifications which are important; some pass into a light stage; others into a deep stage; as a rule the hypnotic state deepens with every hypnosis till about the fourth or at most the sixth hypnosis; by this time the subject will have reached his deepest stage; in the hypnosis subsequent to this, he presents the phenomena of this stage. This is a curious but constant phenomenon, and enables us to classify each subject according to his stage of hypnosis, a point which, in experimental work, is exceedingly useful. These stages vary from a condition which only an expert can recognise as an hypnosis to a condition in which the strikingly abnormal phenomena are present. The variety of these stages is so great that many observers have made attempts at classification, and these are useful in giving the reader an idea of the great differences between the hypnoses of different subjects.
Gurney, whose researches are valuable, though speculative, divided hypnosis into two stages-
1. The “alert” stage.
2. The “deep” stage.
Forel names three states-
1. Drowsiness.
2. Inability to open the eyes. Obedience to suggestion.
3. Somnambulism. Loss of Memory.
Lloyd Tuckey gives a very similar classification to Forel’s-
1. Light sleep.
2. Profound sleep.
3. Somnambulism.
Liébeault has described six different stages-
1. Drowsiness.
2. Drowsiness. Suggested catalepsy possible.
3. Light sleep. Automatic movements possible.
4. Deep sleep. The subject ceases to be in relation with the outer world.
5. Light Somnambulism. Memory, on waking, indistinct and hazy.
6. Deep somnambulism Entire loss -of memory on waking. All the phenomena of post-hypnotic suggestion possible.
Bernheim suggests no less than nine divisions-
1. Drowsiness. Suggestions of local warmth are effective.
2. Drowsiness with inability to open the eyes.
3. Suggestive catalepsy slightly present.
4. Suggestive catalepsy more pronounced.
5. Suggestive contractures may be induced.
6. Automatic obedience.
7. Loss of memory on waking. Hallucinations not possible.
8. Loss of memory. Slight possibility of producing hallucinations, but not posthypnotically.
9. Loss of memory. Hypnotic and posthypnotic hallucinations possible.
Beaunis prepared an analysis of Liebeault’s figures, which is very interesting-
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS 1012 PERSONS.
Drowsiness -- 33
Light Sleep -- 100
Deep Sleep -- 400
Profound Sleep -- 230
Light Somnambulism -- 31
Deep Somnambulism -- 131
Unaffected -- 27
These various classifications are, however, extremely unsatisfactory. The terms “drowsiness” and “sleep” ought to be excluded from an accurate differentiation; and “somnambulism,” a word which already has a definite implication in another sense, should certainly be excluded.
The extent to which suggestion affects the subject depends on the extent to which he is divorced from consciousness of the external, and on the degree to which the psychical action of the neuronic groups is inhibited. In the deeper states, where there is absence of memory on waking, this divorce is complete, and the particular phenomena of the deeper stages depend on the physiological irritability of the particular nervous system in hypnosis. We may thus classify the stages as-
I. Light hypnosis.
(a) External consciousness present.
(b) External consciousness slightly present.
II. Deep hypnosis. In II and in III, no memory on returning to the normal condition
III. Profound hypnosis.
It is useless to attempt more detailed classification than this. Thus in Bernheim’s stage 3, the phenomena of stages 5 and 6 may easily be obtained, the degree of suggestive catalepsy putting it in stage 3, the other phenomena putting it in these later stages. Moreover, many post-hypnotic suggestions obtain their reactions almost as well in the lightest stages as in the deepest, provided the suggestions be of a character to suit the condition.
In the medical application of hypnosis the use of the light stages in this respect is well known; the phenomena of hallucination and other phenomena requiring well-marked concomitant changes in the nervous system are naturally confined to the stages of profound hypnosis.
The de-hypnotisation, or waking from hypnosis, is effected by suggestion, on the same principle as that on which the state is induced. Physical means, such as blowing on the eyes, may be used; but, in any case, they can only be regarded as aids to the suggestion, and their value depends entirely on the mental impression they produce.
Many means are recommended by various writers for waking the patient; fanning, sprinkling with water, loud calls and noises, etc. Just as the downward pass may hypnotise, so the upward pass (by reason of the mental suggestion it conveys) will serve to awaken; though some have claimed that the cool current of air caused by these passes is responsible for the awakening.
According to Pitres and others, there are certain parts of the body where stimulation has an awakening effect; to these they have given the name, “zones hypno-fernatrices.”
The forcible opening of the eyes will sometimes awaken the patient. The use of these physical means is quite unnecessary and to be avoided, though blowing lightly on the eyes to ensure the suggestion taking immediate effect is useful.
There is no difficulty or delay in ending the hypnosis; in all cases the subject is brought back to the normal state instantaneously. In the hands of an unskilful or ignorant operator, however, the subject may pass from the waking state into a condition of apparent lethargy; and out of the hands of the experimenter, who is able neither to awaken nor to influence his subject. These misfortunes can never occur to the practised hypnotist; but many such cases are known, and the danger of these rash experiments in hypnotism cannot be too strongly insisted on.’
A case is recorded by Dr Julius Solow (New York Medical Journal, March 19, 1891). A young man was hypnotised by a friend, at an evening party, for fun. The first attempt produced trembling throughout the whole body; a second trial was made with no better result; the third time the subject was seized with violent trembling of the arms, and he began to shiver. He then fell on the floor, jumped up, became merry, laughed, joked, and sang; then violent convulsions set in, followed by loss of speech catalepsy next supervened, and the whole body, except the aims, became rigid. For two days convulsions, loss of speech, and catalepsy recurred very frequently, and the sight of anything bright excited the man to madness. Various sedatives were tried, and for ten days his condition was not much improved; but after this the severe symptoms began to give way to outbursts of alternate singing and hmenting; and after another period of twelve days, during which time his temperature went up to 1W , he recovered.
When once it is found that the patient does not awaken in obedience to the operator, no farther attempts to wake him should be made, but an experienced hypnotist should be immediately sent for, or, if one cannot be found, the subject should be allowed to sleep it off. In the one or two cases of the kind which have come under the writer’s notice, the harm done was almost entirely due to the ignorant and futile attempts made to arouse the patient.
The duration of the hypnotic sleep of the subject, if not awakened, is very variable. Some subjects will wake at the precise moment when the operator leaves them, the fact of his absence acting as a suggestion that they are no longer under his control. Others will be awakened by an unexpected or loud noise. Some will be roused from the state by efforts made in it; thus, for instance, a subject has been awakened by laughing loudly in obedience to an hypnotic suggestion. If the sleep be light, subjects will often return to the natural state in a very short period; but if it be deep, the sleep may continue for three or four hours. Bernheim mentions a case in which the sleep lasted eighteen hours.
The condition after hypnosis is found to be perfectly normal. In the hands of an experienced hypnotist the subject never finds that he is suffering from any such things as “drowsiness” or “giddiness.” Any ill effects are due entirely to the fault of the operator.
Various opinions have been expressed, some well many ill informed, with reference to the persons who are hypnotisable. It would be idle to affirm of any particular temperament that it lends itself to hypnosis when we find that over eighty per cent. Of all persons tried is the minimum, average of anyone who properly understands the subject in its practical application. Speaking from his own experience the writer has found that the class presenting the least difficulty, and generally giving satisfactory experimental results, is to be found in young men of average education and of fairly all-round qualities; such a man, for instance, as is typical of Oxford or Cambridge.
Excessive self-consciousness presents some difficulty, and consequently the more or less brilliant neurotic and the very stupid and conceited resemble one another in being difficult subjects. Idiots are not hypnotisable, and the insane are excessively difficult to hypnotise. Sex does not appear to materially affect the question. There is a somewhat common misconception prevalent which regards hysterical coalitions as likely to indicate easy hypnotisability. Hysteria, however, is nearly always the source of much difficulty and never makes the induction easy. Nationality has very little to do with the matter. Taking nationalities of very different temperaments we find little difference in the recorded results. In France, Liebeault hypnotised 985 out of 1012; in Sweden, Wellenstrand hypnotised 701 out of 718; and in Holland, Van Rentezhen hypnotised 169 out of 178. Bernheim and Forel agree, with reference to the medical application of hypnosis, that the opinion of physicians who cannot hypnotise at least eighty per cent. Of their patients is of no value. The present writer’s percentage in all his cases between Jan. 1892 and Dec. 1896 was 91.5. Amongst members of the University of Oxford his percentage was 95.84.
And judging from his observation of a large number of cases be is on the whole inclined to regard susceptibility to hypnosis as generally belonging to men with brains of good quality; unquestionably the process of hypnotising well educated people is easier, and, as a rule, takes less time. (In 50 first hypnoses of poor people the avenge time taken by the writer was 6 min. 10 see.; in 50 first hypnoses of Oxford undergraduates the average time was 4 min. 40 sec.)
Reference should here be made to conditions of hypnosis not recognised by most authorities, but described originally by Charcot and upheld by some of his pupils. These states are not, in the writer’s opinion, at all representative of normal hypnosis, but, if accurately described, are pathological curiosities due to the peculiar material used for the experiments. We append an extract from Charcot’s description of these states:-
“1. The Cataleptic State. This may be produced: (a) primarily, under the influence of an intense and unexpected noise, of a bright light presented to the gaze, or, again, in some subjects by the more or less prolonged fixing of the eyes on a given object; (b) consecutively to the lethargic state, when the eyes, which up to that moment had been Closed, are exposed to the light by raising the eyelids. The subject thus rendered cataleptic is motionless and, as it were, fascinated. The eyes are open, the gaze is fixed, the eyelids do not quiver, the tears soon gather and flow down the cheeks. Of ten there is an anaesthesia of the conjunctiva, and even of the cornea. The limbs and all parts of the body may retain the position in which they are placed for a considerable period, even when the attitude is one which it is difficult to maintain. The limbs appear to be extremely light when raised or displaced, and there is no flexibilitas carea, nor yet what is termed the stiffness of a lay figure. The tendon reflex disappears. Neuro-muscular hyperexcitability is absent. There is complete insensibility to pain, but some senses retain their activity, at any rate in part the muscular sense, and those of sight and hearing. This continuance of sensorial activity often enables the experimenter to influence the cataleptic subject in various ways, and to develop in him by means of suggestion automatic impulses, and also to produce hallucinations. When this is the case, the fixed attitudes artificially impressed on the limbs, or, in a more general way, on different parts of the body, give place to more or less complex movements, perfectly co-ordinated and in agreement with the nature of the hallucinations and of the impulses which have been produced. If left to himself, the subject soon falls back into the state in which he was placed at the moment when he was influenced by the suggestion.
“2. The Lethargic State This is displayed: (a) primarily, under the influence of a fixed gaze at some object placed within a certain distance of the eyes; (b) in succession to the cataleptic state, simply by closing the eyelids, or by leading the subject into a perfectly dark place. At the moment when he falls into the lethargic state, the subject often emits a peculiar sound from the larynx, and at the same time a little foam gathers on the lips. He then becomes placid, as if plunged in deep sleep; there is complete insensibility to pain in the skin, and in the mucous membrane in proximity with it. The organs of the senses sometimes, however, retain a certain amount of activity, but the various attempts which may be made to affect the subject by means of suggestion or intimidation are generally fruitless. The limbs are relaxed, flaccid and pendent, and when raised they fall back again as soon as they are left to themselves. The pupils are, on the other hand, contracted, the eyes are closed, or half-closed, and an almost incessant quivering of the eyelids may usually be observed. There is an exaggeration of the tendon reflex; neuro-muscular hyperexcitability is always present, although it varies in intensity. It may be general, extending to all the muscles of the animal system, the face, the trunk, and the limbs; and it may also be partial; only present for instance, in the upper limbs and not in the face. This phenomenon is displayed when mechanical excitement is applied to a nerve trunk by means of pressure with a rod or quill; this causes the muscles supplied by this nerve to contract.
“The muscles themselves may be directly excited. in the same way; somewhat intense and prolonged excitement of the muscles of the limbs, trunk, and neck produces contracture of the muscles in question; on the face, however, the contractions are transitory, and do not become established in a state of permanent contracture. Contracture may also be produced in the limbs by means of repeated percussion of the tendons. These contractures, whether produced by excitement of the nerves or muscles, or by percussion of the tendons, are rapidly relaxed by exciting the antagonist muscles. As it has been already said, the cataleptic state can be instantaneously developed in a subject plunged in lethargy, if while in. a light room the upper eyelids are raised so as to expose the eyes.
“3. The State of Artificial Somnambulism. This state may, in some subjects, be immediately produced by fixity of gaze, and also in other ways which it is not now necessary to enumerate. It may be produced at will in subjects who have first been thrown into a state of lethargy or catalepsy by exerting a simple pressure on the scalp, or by a plight friction. This state seems to correspond with what has been termed the magnetic sleep.
“It is difficult to analyse the very complex phenomena which are presented under this form. In the researches made at the Salpetrière, many of them have been provisionally set aside. The chief aim has been to define, as far as possible, the characteristics which distinguish somnambulism from the lethargic and cataleptic states, and to demonstrate the relations which exist between it and the two latter states.
“The eyes are closed or half-closed; the eyelids generally quiver; when left to himself the subject seems to be asleep, but even in this case-the limbs are not in such a pronounced state of relaxation as when we have to do with lethargy. Neuro-muscular hyperexcitability, as it has been defined above, does not exist; in other words, excitement of the nerves or of the muscles themselves, and percussion of the tendons, do not produce contracture. On the other hand, various Methods, among others passing the hand lightly and repeatedly over the surface of a limb (mesmeric passes), or, again, breathing gently on the skin, cause the limb to become rigid, but in a way which differs from the contracture due to muscular hyperexcitability, since it cannot, like the latter, be relaxed by mechanical excitement of the antagonistic muscles; it also differs from cataleptic immobility in the resistance encountered in the region of the joints, when the attempt is made to give a change of attitude to the stiffened limb. To distinguish this state from cataleptic immobility, strictly so called, it is proposed to distinguish the rigidity peculiar to the somnambulist state by the name of catalepsoid rigidity; it might also be called pseudo-cataleptic.
“The skin is insensible to pain, but this is combined with hyperaesthesia of some forms of cutaneous sensibility, of the muscular sense, and of the special senses of sight, hearing, and smell. It is generally easy, by the employment of commands or suggestion, to induce the subject to perform very complex automatic actions. We may then observe what is strictly called artificial somnambulism.
“In the case of a subject in a state of somnambulism, a slight pressure on the cornea, made by applying the fingers to the eyelids, will change that state into a lethargy accompanied by neuro-muscular hyperexcitability; if, on the other hand, the eyes are kept open in a light room by raising their lids, the cataleptic state is not induced.”
It is seen at once that between these theories of Charcot and those of the Nancy school there is a very wide difference.
Liébeault, Bernheim, and in fact almost every authority in hypnotism, know nothing of these phenomena produced without suggestion, with the exception of Charcot and his school, and one is inclined to think that having originally committed errors of observation due to the non-elimination of suggestion, the Salpetriere school, in the endeavour to maintain their scientific reputation, have been too unwilling to modify opinions expressed when the study of the subject was less developed. Charcot has said, “At the very outset my studies dealt with hysterical women, and ever since I have always employed hysterical subjects.”
It seems plain that, however valuable such studies may be from a pathological point of view, they can have little to do with the normal conditions of hypnosis, and we think that more than due importance has been attached to them.
The articles which appeared in the Times at the beginning of 1893, entitled “The New Mesmerism,” and the many articles which have been written on the abuses of hypnotism in the Paris hospitals, have dealt solely with the methods and experiments of the Paris school; and the theories of this school have now been rejected in favour of the theories of the Nancy school, based as these are on the large and increasing observation of many workers in various countries.
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